Hume: Morality Is Based on Sentiment

Hume: Morality is Based on Sentiment This paper will attempt to give a detailed breakdown of David Hume's take on morality, and how some of the other philosophers would critique his stance. I will first speak about why Hume believes reason and passion don't contradict each other. Then I will give Aristotle’s and Aquinas' view on this conclusion of his. Next, I will speak on how Hume argues that moral judgments aren't grounded in reason. Afterwards, I will discuss what he considers that moral judgments are founded on. Finally, I will give a critique of Hume's theory from Hobbes' perspective.Hume's take on human morality is a very interesting one indeed to contemplate. His main argument on the topic is that the morality of humans is totally derived from sentiment, and in no way has anything to do with reason. He first defines sentiment and reason. He says that the former refers to passions such as emotions, feelings, appetites and desires. Then he also goes on to categorize the passions as being either calm or violent. And according to him, it is our passions that lead us to action. He also states that passions can neither be true nor false, they're â€Å"original existences† (Hume 42 column 2 paragraph 3).Then he defines reason as, what we can say, are ruminations of the mind, which includes beliefs, thoughts, conclusions of arguments, etc, and declares that these can be true or false. It is with these definitions in mind that Hume goes on to make the statement that passion and reason cannot oppose each other. Because passions are original existences, they are neither reasonable nor unreasonable though they are the dominators of our actions. Reason, however, can be put to true/false evaluations and are actually derived from our passions.Reason cannot contradict passion because this would be an internal disagreement of ideas, which are considered as copies of the object which they represent, i. e. the particular passion. He states though that a pass ion can be called unreasonable if it is founded upon a false supposition or chooses insufficient means for the required end (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2), but when one perceives that the supposition is false or the means are insufficient, then the passion yields to reason without any opposition whatsoever (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2).This is because willing an action follows upon the supposition that the action brings about a proposed effect, but as soon as it's found that this supposition is not true there is no more desire to will that action. He also says that reason can have an indirect impact on passion. For example, when one considers jealousy, it can be seen that it’s a passion that’s based in human belief. Aristotle’s view is based on a system of virtues of which, if they’re done well, would cause one to lead a happy life. He also states that there are actually two categories of virtues: those that are intellectual and those which are moral.Int ellectual virtues refer to those characteristics that lead one to think or reason well, and demands experience and time. Moral virtues, on the other hand, are those characteristics that perfect our character and are acquired through habit (Aristotle 54 column 1 paragraph 4). These habits are the basis of actions, thus determining what one does in particular situations. Taking a look at how Hume’s actions derived from sentiment can be compared with Aristotle’s moral virtues that come through habit, the parallels in the theories can be immediately seen.The same can be said about Aristotle’s intellectual virtues bettering one’s thinking when compared with Hume’s reason being composed of ideas, beliefs and the like. Hume’s definitions of sentiment and reason can be seen as analogous to Aristotle’s virtues. Seeing that these two classes of virtues too function in wholly different ways to Aristotle, being that they target different aspects of the human, he would agree with Hume’s view that passion cannot oppose reason.The same can be said for Aquinas as was said for Aristotle. Aquinas' statement â€Å"Whatever a human being seeks, it seeks under the aspect of the good and if it does not seek it as its perfect good, which is its ultimate end, it must seek it as tending to that perfect good, since any beginning is ordered to its culmination† (McInerny 200 paragraph 3) can be interpreted to mean that all the things attracting the human will are perceived as being good.He then goes on to say that there is a distinction between the thing sought, which would be the trigger of Hume’s passion, and the reason for seeking it, which would be the available facts leading to the belief that the object is worth being sought. Here is where he can be compared to Hume who says that passions are original existences that cannot conflict with reason, which is based in facts as known by the human.Aquinas also states th at humans can be mistaken about the good in a particular instance of action, but if a person is enlightened that â€Å"not-A rather than A† contributes to their happiness, they â€Å"have the same reason for doing not-A† that they thought they had for doing â€Å"A† (McInerny 201 paragraph 4). He is saying here that whenever the human discovers that something sought for happiness (and thus is thought to be morally good) doesn’t fulfill the requirement, the human then has the same reason now for not seeking that thing anymore, whether it be a particular action or object.This supplements Hume’s theory of the only situations where he thinks passions can be thought of as â€Å"unreasonable†, though said passions would immediately yield to reason when the supposition is perceived to be false (Hume 43 column 2 paragraph 2). Aquinas clarifies this thinking even further when he says an act is not called rational because it’s an act of reason, but because it (the action) can be influenced by reason (McInerny 203 paragraph 1).Unlike many other philosophers, especially the classic ones, Hume disputes the claim that morality is founded on reason. He proposes this isn’t possible since â€Å"reason is the discovery of truth or falsehood†, which is related to ideas and matters of fact (Hume 44 column 1 paragraph 1). Since passions, volitions and actions are original facts and realities which are complete in themselves, and thus cannot reference each other, â€Å"it is impossible [for them to] be either contrary or conformable to reason†.Since our actions, which can be evaluated as being morally laudable or blamable, cannot be produced or prevented by reason, moral judgments cannot be derived from reason. To determine what Hume believes morality is derived from, there is a need to define facts and values, and to see how these fit into the spectrum of his conclusion. Facts are things known and can be describ ed. However, values are subjective feelings about the facts. So there is a huge difference between what each of them refers to.Using these definitions, Hume argues that there are no facts about good/evil and right/wrong. No matter how you may examine a morally wrong action, at no time can you ever find a matter of fact which you call vice. As long as you consider the object itself, you will never find that which is called vice. It is only when you reflect within that you find a â€Å"sentiment of disapprobation, which arises in you, towards this action†. That thing which arises in you is a fact, but it is an object of feeling, not reason (Hume 44 column 1 paragraph 3).Basically, Hume is saying that there is no way to say that an action willed by someone can be called factual, since there is nothing true or false about it, but it is the way someone feels about that action within themselves that gives the action moral value. So it can be seen how Hume concludes moral right/wron g is not deducted from reason, but how one feels about things. And human nature comes equipped with the basic sentiments of sympathy or benevolence toward humankind in general, and this is what leads us in making moral judgments.Hobbes would completely disagree with Hume on his theory that morality is based in sentiment. Just looking at the title of his work tells us that he believes morality is completely based on reason. He believes that humans are inherently selfish creatures and wouldn’t be much more than the lower animals if there was no society. He reasons that humans typically have a natural right to everything, even other humans, if they discern it that thing a means of advancing their own survival.He sees humans as existing in a state of nature where there is only a â€Å"war of everyone against everyone† (Hobbes 5 column 1 paragraph 1) arising from competition, fear and vanity. He posits that in this war, the concepts of right or wrong, justice or injustice, etc. have no place (Hobbes 4 column 1 paragraph 4), and hence there is no morality. However, they need to make peace with each other in an attempt to preserve their own lives. So humans force themselves to make covenants with each other to give up their fundamental right to all things for this security.Justice is derived from these covenants, and one is said to be unjust when they fail to â€Å"perform their covenants made† (Hobbes 5 column 2 paragraph 3). But there is also no trust among humans, since there is no way to be certain that the others will adhere to their agreement, so a further step is taken to establish what is called a commonwealth, in order to provide a â€Å"coercive power† that will â€Å"compel men equally to the performance of their covenants† through the fear of punishment worse than any benefit they get by breaking the covenant.It is through this sequence of occurrences that Hobbes arrives at his natural laws which are summed as â€Å"doi ng to others, as we would be done to you† (Hobbes 6 column 2 paragraph 3) which can be seen as morality. Thus, Hobbes would say instead that morality comes from the formation of covenants and commonwealth, and not sentiment as Hume says. Works Cited Aristotle. â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics† John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy.Hobbes, Thomas. â€Å"Leviathan: Morality as Rational Advantage. † John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. Hume, David. â€Å"Morality is Based on Sentiment. † John Arthur and Steven Scalet. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. McInerny, Ralph. â€Å"Ethics. † The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas. pages 200-206.

Police Brutality Essay

On March 3rd, 1991, Rodney King and his two friends were pulled over for speeding In Los Angeles. King had just recently been released from prison for second degree robbery and was still on parole. The police officers on duty reported speeds of 110-115 mph and even called in a helicopter for back up although there was no police chase involved. The police audio tape explains how King circled through a dark neighborhood going 55mph in a 40-mph zone and the how the vehicle stopped at a red light but failed to yield to police. Based on the statements of the audio tape, it appears the officers pursued King because he had a criminal record. King was pulled over by at least 15 officers in patrol cars. Two witnesses observed King getting out of his vehicle, while following police orders, as he lay on the ground. The police on scene reported King trying to stand up while being handcuffed causing an officer to fall and he also allegedly reached into his pants pocket that raised police concerns . They also said King kicked and swung at the officers while he charged at them. The eye witnesses said they didn’t see him attempt to do any of these accusations. While King was lying on the ground handcuffed, he was tazed with a stun gun and struck across the face with a baton by the apprehending police officers. A third witness was able to videotape the incident and it shows King was hogtied on the side of the road being beaten repeatedly for a couple minutes by the Los Angeles police officers. King was struck in the head and shoulders multiple times and was even stomped on in the head and neck area. Witnesses said out of all the officers on scene, not one of them made any effort to stop the beating. After King was beaten the police dragged him down the street face down, still hogtied and handcuffed, where he was left all alone. The ambulance arrived minutes after this horrific beating occurred. King was loaded onto the stretcher, still hogtied, and was taken to the hospital. King’s two friends were simply let go after the ambulance left. When King was examined by doctors, they found nine skull fractures, a shattered eye socket and cheekbone, a broken leg, a concussion, injuries to both knees and nerve damage that left his face partially paralyzed. King was released without charges. A sergeant and three officers were the only ones charged with this horrendous crime. (Deutsch n.p.). This case definitely helped shed more light and public awareness about police brutality, especially towards the L.A.P.D. (Los Angeles Police Department). The L.A.P.D. has had a bad reputation for generations of the heartless treatment of minorities and the disrespect they display towards civilians. There have been hundreds of racial profiling complaints towards the LAPD. They have yet to consider a single one valid. The L.A.P.D has the lowest officer-to-resident ratio consisting of 8,300 officers serving a population over 3.4 million. White officers make up 61% of the L.A.P.D while Los Angeles’s population consists of about 60% of nonwhites. Some believe that white police officers don’t understand a lot of things that go on in these areas and that could potentially be one reason why some instances result in excessive force. Being a police officer is a perilous occupation where police are sometimes put in dangerous situations and excessive force is needed. Although police are able to use excessive force to protect and serve our country, there are many police officers who abuse their power and privileges. Many officers use extreme measures when it deems unnecessary which results in police brutality or even death. Police brutality has been in the public view for quite some time but not much has been done about it because most evidence either gets covered up or disregarded. While citizens worry about protecting themselves from criminals, they must also keep a watchful eye on those who are supposed to protect and serve. Police brutality in the U.S., racial profiling, the prevention of abuse, and what we can do to protect ourselves and each other against police brutality are important views to be aware of that lead us to understand what we can do to help reduce these inhumane acts in our society. Many reports claim police brutality have risen quite a bit in recent years so that could easily explain why there are 3,890,000 police brutality videos accessible on the internet today and not only is it widespread it is profoundly entrenched. Police brutality is commonly known around the world as the use of unreasonable or excessive force used by the police to pursue or arrest civilians that end up causing serious injury to an individual for no reason at all. It is said that it mainly consists of white officers abusing minorities. This may include physical injury, false arrests, verbal attacks, physical intimidation, psychological manipulation, and sexual abuse. (Langsted n.p.). Surprisingly, many of the people that are involved in a police brutality case are not involved in criminal activities. They simply had a minor disagreement with the police officer. Little is being done to reduce or monitor the number of police beatings and evidence shows that â€Å"racial and ethnic minorities were disproportionately† harmed by harassment, verbal and physical abuse, and false arrests. (Lendman n.p.). Unfortunately, police can use excessive force anywhere and for whatever reason. Different causes of police brutality are more common in some places than others. California, New York, Florida and Texas see the most cases of police misconduct. Police brutality is mostly caused by hatred for another race or at times an individual person but the elderly, women, students, and elected officials have become victims as well because of their weakness and vulnerability. Police have attacked people in university libraries, in public meetings, and in their own homes. Federal records do show a large majority of police brutality cases are left unresolved where police are not prosecuted. (Rockwell n.p.). It’s disturbing to know civilians, who witness police brutality, are so intimated by police for the fear of retaliation they don’t intervene to stop police brutality. Police who commit brutality are most likely to commit perjury as well. Police will most likely lie on the stand to prevent any lawsuits against them or the department they work for. The most common form of perjury made by police is they say the Miranda rights were read to an individual when they really hadn’t been. However, there are decent cops who truly believe a guilty individual will go free unless they lie on the stand to help put the criminal to justice. When police are investigated about incidents involving beatings or shootings, many cases show the actions of the police were unjustified. Police usually get a slap on the hand (no suspension/mild discipline) or get off pretty easy (probation) when it comes to punishments they should be held more accountable, for instance, being guilty of a serious misconduct. Meaningful disciplinary action for police officers should be just as stern and dealt with in a very similar way as any other civilian’s punishment would. The public is given very little information if the case doesn’t make it to trial so therefore the abuse stays hidden and police abuse continues. Police misconducts should be taken more seriously because cops are held to a higher standard and have made a promise to protect and serve our country. Did you know that, in 2009, only 33% of police officers that were charged misconduct went through to conviction? Only 64% were convicted and received prison sentences. And an astonishing 14 months is the average length of time a police officer spends in prison. (â€Å"Injustice Everywhere† n.p.). Depending on what their actions and misconducts are, some should be either fired, prosecuted or their peace officer license taken away. If they are unable to hold up their end of the bargain of the promise they made to our country then they should simply find another job. Alvin F. Poussaint, M.D. is an associate professor of psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. He believes there are two main reasons that police officers have no problem with brutalizing people or witnessing them being beaten. The first reason is many officers get caught up in slogans such as â€Å"War on Crime† or â€Å"War on Drugs† they begin to see themselves as warriors in battle where the enemy beco mes the objective. The other reason is because the large amount of negativity policemen face and the number of bad people they are confronted with results in police making generalizations that take on racial tone. Police then feel people should be punished for who they are and what they represent. (Massaquoi n.p.). Although congress passed a Police Accountability Act in 1994, they failed to fund it. On top of that, the legislation doesn’t require police departments to provide data to the justice department nor are they required to keep any records. They don’t punish police violence or excessive force as human rights violations either. (Lendman n.p.). Police brutality is illegal and a violation of our civil rights that is protected by the United States Constitution. Recent studies show that since the attack on September 11, 2001 some police felt the use of excessive force was necessary so they began targeting individuals of middle-eastern or Islamic backgrounds. Although they thought or believed it was necessary to use excessive force doesn’t make their decision right because nobody is above the law, including police officers. Racial profiling as well as discrimination appears to be the leading causes of police brutality in America today. Decades of racial discrimination, poor urban planning, and failed labor policies have left African American’s jobless and trapped in poor neighborhoods. Once they are trapped, they rarely get opportunities needed to rise above poverty and have few positive role models so they feel they have no other choices but to turn to gangs and the life of crime so they can achieve a sense of belonging, protection, and money. Racial profiling is described as singling out any individuals or groups as potential suspects in a crime because of their race or ethnicity. Most victims that are subject to racial profiling are African Americans, Hispanic Americans, homosexuals, religious extremists and younger men. For example, if a police officer stops a young black man walking down the street or pulls him over while driving because they are viewed as commonly involved in drug crimes, stopping Hispanics near the Mexican border because illegal immigrants travel specific routes or Arab airplane passengers because Muslim groups have committed acts of terrorism are all acts of racial profiling. This commonly occurs in traffic stops, city streets, highways, schools, and are most common in California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Texas. Racial profiling is so controversial these days because minority groups feel victimized by their race, ethnicity or national origin rather than their behavior. Although only small parts of groups participate in illegal activities, racial profiling treats everyone of that group as suspects. Another way people look at it is based on the known information about group characteristics of those involved in crimes it helps the police identify a young black man in a high crime area, a Hispanic man near the Mexican border or a Muslim man in the airport who may be a threat to innocent individuals. â€Å"Evidence shows that racial minorities are systematically victimized, without cause, in public, when driving, at work, at home, in places of worship, and traveling, often violently. Agencies designed to ban federal officers from engaging in racial profiling is, in fact, flawed and does little to end it, because it doesn’t cover â€Å"profiling based on religion, religious appearance, or national origin.† A major impediment to (prohibiting it) remains the continued unwillingness or inability of the US government to pass federal legislation (banning the practice) with binding effect on federal, state or local law enforcement.† (Lendman n.p.). Racial profiling is a violation of our Constitutional Rights but police departments either: encourage it, does little or nothing about it or, believe it or not, believe it’s necessary. Preventing police brutality is an ongoing goal in America. It’s hard to find a balance between laws designed to protect individuals and police officers. One way to help reduce police brutality is to help address a bad situation when you witness one arise. This can be dangerous so a person should take precautionary measures as necessary. The best way to defend ourselves against police brutality is to stay away from any situations where police may be involved. If a person happens to become involved in a situation where a cop is using excessive force, the person should not retaliate because that will only cause the situation to become more dangerous and a possible accumulation of unwanted charges may occur. If they are taken into custody, they should contact an attorney as soon as possible and make sure to write down as many details about the incident they can remember so if the incident goes to court they have the appropriate documentation. There are two amendments of the U.S. Constitution that protect civilians against police brutality. The Fifth Amendment states that a person cannot be forced to act as a witness against himself, or be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process. In other words, an officer cannot force an individual to commit a crime, nor can an individual be incarcerated without due process. The fourteenth amendment adds that no person under the jurisdiction of the United States can be deprived of the protection of the law. (Langsted n.p.). Diop Kamau is a 52 year old former police officer who, for the last two decades, has made a career recording police abuse in the California area because of the mistreatment his father encountered in 1987 by another California department. Although he is aware he is not very popular with many police departments, he continues to bring public accountability for local law enforcement into the public eye by videotaping and using microphones to test the racial tendencies of the local police. Police debate if the videos are serving the public interest or if it is putting officer’s lives in danger and setting the foundation for the public not to trust law enforcement. In some cases police say they are afraid to react to a situation because they think they will get in trouble for something they thought they did in good faith, which could actually cause serious safety issues and concerns for police and civilians. There are two sides to every story and then there is the truth. These video recordings have helped tell the truth in many controversial cases between police officers and the accusers. Usually the police officers get the benefit of the doubt because they have made a promise to protect and serve our country but with the rising amount of police brutality in America today, these videos help settle cases of police misconduct. These videos can also help protect police officers against false accusations of mistreatment as well. Not only can they help protect the public and police officers in difficult situations, it shows how officers and employees interact with the public. This can help suggest possible ways for police officers to improve their interactions with the public and to retrain their employees in a positive manor. Kamau says, â€Å"Video is making victims more credible. If Rodney King would have tried to tell his story without video, nobody would have believed it.† (â€Å"Policeabuse.com† n.p.). There are many police crimes caught on tape that can easily be viewed on the internet. All you have to do is go to http://www.policecrimes.com/ to read about the horrendous stories posted or you can also search for video footage on http://www.youtube.com/ by typing police brutality in the search engine. There is also a National Police Misconduct News Feed website, www.injusticeeverywhere.com, which allows the public to review daily recap’s of police misconduct in the U.S. America has every right to know what kinds of actions police are taking that violate people’s rights. On the contrary, law enforcement experts believe the openness of police brutality in the public will group all cops as being mean and unprofessional when this is not necessarily the case. There are dedicated police officers that put their lives on the line to protect us from harm. Mediation introduces new opportunities for police accountability as well. An officer participating in mediation is directly accountable to the citizen who filed the complaint. This enables the police officer to take full responsibility for their actions. It also enhances positive changes in police subculture. The experience of mediation between the police officer and complainant and the opportunity to learn how one’s actions affect one another, people may eventually have an effect on the police subculture. (Walker, Archbold, and Herbst n.p.). The best way to reduce police brutality is for the police departments to admit there is an ongoing problem with police abuse and that it does truly exist. It’s just as important for the community to stand up for the fight against police brutality. Another way is to increase the training and education in the recruitment new police officers. Instead of hiring high school graduates, they should be required to have a college degree. A police department should also have a good leader in the department to guide police officers to do the right thing. Officers that live in the same city they are working in helps tremendously because they are aware of the mores of the society they reside. If a police officer is unaware of their surroundings, they can have trouble reacting to situations they haven’t experienced before. Acknowledgement of the law and civil rights can help civilians distinguish what is right from wrong when it comes to treatment by police officers. Police brutality in the U.S., racial profiling, the prevention of abuse, and what we can do to protect ourselves and each other against police brutality are important views to be aware of that lead us to understand what we can do to help reduce these inhumane acts in our society. Police brutality and racial profiling have been continuous issues that have been around for hundreds of years, after slavery ended and it still continues to happen today. The knowledge of why and where it’s happening and the understanding of goals towards a better police accountability system can help American’s come together to create a peaceful and less violent society. It also teaches us how protect ourselves and each other against the inhumane acts by police officers if we are ever faced with such an unfortunate event. Being a police officer is a perilous occupation where police are put in dangerous situations sometimes and excessive force is needed. Although police are able to use excessive force there are many police officers who abuse their power and privileges. Many officers use extreme measures when it deems unnecessary which results in police brutality or even death. Police brutality has been in the public view for quite some time but not much has been done about it because most evidence either gets covered up or disregarded. While citizens worry about protecting themselves from criminals, they must also keep an eye on those who are trained to protect and serve our country. It may have taken for eye witnesses and their video cameras to capture the mistreatment of civilians of police brutality going on in the U.S, especially towards African American’s, but at least the problem is now being acknowledged and brought to the public’s attention instead of just being swept under a rug. People want the protection of police without having their rights violated along with the prevention of crime. There are many changes that occur as time goes on as far as laws, policies, people, attitudes, generations, beliefs and so on. The operations of police departments should be among the changes. We, as a nation, need to come together to prevent our families, friends and future generations from becoming a victim of police brutality. The past does not have to be the future so let’s take criminal justice more seriously so we can continue on towards the goal of having peace on earth. Works Cited Page , ed. â€Å"For cops, citizen videos bring increased scrutiny.†Policeabuse.com. USA Today, 01012012. Web. 6 Apr 2012. , ed. â€Å"National Police Misconduct NewsFeed Daily Recap 04-05-12.† Injustice Everywhere. Injustice Everywhere, 040512. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Deutsch, Linda. â€Å"Police tape: ‘You just had a big-time use of force’.† THE OREGONIAN. The Associated Press, 03191991. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Langsted, Evan. â€Å"Questions about Police Brutality.†Articlesbase. Articlesbase, 08242009. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Lendman, Stephen. â€Å"Police Brutality in America.† Baltimore Chronicle & Sentinel. The Baltimore News Network, 07132010. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Massaquoi, Hans. â€Å"How to stop police brutality – includes 12 steps to solving problem of police brutality.†Business Library. Ebony, 04062012. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Rockwell, Lew. â€Å"Quick Facts: US police brutality.† YOU.S DESK. Press TV, 12172011. Web. 6 Apr 2012. Walker, Samuel, Carol Archbold, and Leigh Herbst. â€Å"U.S Department of Justice.† Mediating Citizen Complaints Against Police Officers: A Guide For Police and Community Leaders. Department of Criminal Justice, 08022002. Web. 6 Apr 2012.

The Belle Epoque An analysis of its literature and history Essay

The Belle Epoque An analysis of its literature and history - Essay Example But it ws the rurl electorte tht ws now in control. Following the politicl consolidtion of the Third Republic in the lte 1870s, nd resurgence of ntionl confidence fter the success of the exposition of 1878, new epoch begn in the history of Pris. Republicnism developed long with universl suffrge nd, in the fce of n initil roylist thret, into brod colition of the Third Estte. Tht colition united the "new socil lyer," s Gmbett clled the middle clss, nd the rurl msses. Thus it not only ended the "Frnce of the notbles" but finlly eliminted the specil politicl sttus tht Pris hd held for lmost century. In republicn Frnce the city lost its former revolutionry sovereignty nd its bility to mke nd brek regimes. s of 1880 the government nd Ntionl ssembly once gin hd their set in Pris, nd the city ws still the epicenter of the tremors tht uninter ruptedly shook the Third Republic (Weber, 1986: 105). ... In the Belle Epoque, s the yers between 1880 nd 1914 cme to be known, Pris developed into the world cpitl of fshion, rt, nd literture, nd of life's plesures (Shttuck, 1999). This ws no coincidence but rther the result of vrious developments tht colesced, strengthened, nd enriched one nother. Belle Epoque Pris ws gigntic ctlyst for the shrill excitements, the somber fers, nd the optimistic expecttions tht were so chrcteristic of the fin de sicle, nd were expressed by multitude of views nd competing rtistic schools nd cliques. The effects of Hussmnn's redevelopments on the chrcter of Pris becme pprent only fter 1880, when Frnce begn to recover from the consequences of its defet nd the suppression of the Commune.Destruction of the Commune completed Hussmnn's plnned expulsion of the clsses lborieuses to the ghettos of the ceinture rouge. It left n overwhelmingly middle-clss socil milieu in the cpitl, with conservtive voting pttern in its twenty rrondissements.The socil leveling of the popultion ws complemented by democrtizing process of dily life, s exmplified by the success of the grnds mgsins. Under the uspices of the Republic nd universl suffrge, which strengthened nd ensured this development, life ws lived in public-something tht stonished mny contemporries. It ws ccompnied by wht the vicomte d'venel described s the nivellement des jouissnces -the dwn of consumer society nd mss culture. In this wy the mteril foundtions were lid for the fscinting mgic displyed in Pris during the Belle Epoque. Two phenomen were lrgely responsible for the nivellement des jouissnces : the cf-concert nd the music hll, nd the expositions. Though the trdition of the former dtes further bck, they hd never before, nor hve they since, experienced such success. t the turn of the century

Short Academic Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Short Academic Report - Essay Example In the present case study, a food processing organisation is undergoing change. The major objective of the change is to enhance the overall efficiency level of employees working in the organisation. The report will analyse the current and anticipated problems and provide solutions for an effective change management process. Introduction The process of transforming an enterprise or a business into the next advanced phase of operation from the current functional phase is known as organization change (Harigopal, 2006). It involves various changes. These can be a change in the overall processes of the firm, company ownership, and transfer of teams and employees and modification or up gradation of the functional practices. Thus, the task of implementing change, especially in case of organizational transformation can be very difficult and cumbersome. Solutions Answer 1 In the present case, the organization is going through a change. The non-salaried employees will undergo change in order t o upgrade their skills and work knowledge. This will require exhaustive training sessions, workshops and pressure among the employees as well as employer. Naturally, there will be barriers to change. During change in a workplace, various types of barriers to change occur. Few of the barriers or obstacles at workplace change, which can occur, can be categorized into organizational and individual barriers, explained below; No involvement of company employees in workplace change management In order to successfully complete the process of workplace change, the management will have to look what employees think of the process. One of the major and serious barriers to organizational change occurs when employees are not involved in the change process. Unclear procedures and processes regarding goals Before implementation of any workplace change, the goals and objective of these changes should be clear in the mind of the top management. The procedures and processes should be clearly defined and proper documentation is required for any references in future. It has been seen that in most of the cases, the management is not aware for the exact objective of workplace change (Beer, M. and Nohria, N., 2000). Since these workplace change order comes from headquarters or another location, these are merely followed as orders without giving sufficient attention to the minute details and criticality of the process. Unclear procedures and processes can also be one of the primary barriers. Inefficient leadership strategies Ineffective and inefficient leadership is another barrier to successful workplace change. In order to manage and implement the change, effective leadership is extremely important for the company as well as its employees (Chen et al., 2013). In the present case it was found out that there was resistance to change even from few of the managers and executives. This has occurred as many of the managers thought that employees undergoing training and development progra ms might take up their positions in future. Increase in competition and loss of power and authority were other reasons expected to increase resistance among managers. Ineffective employee communication Any kind of workplace change should be properly communicated with the employees. Advance notification of workplace change helps the employees to make up their mind and be more acceptable to change. Ineffective

Governing global business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Governing global business - Essay Example Contrary to the globalization critics, the embracers of globalization have suggested or reported huge reduction of poverty levels in their respective states, which has led to huge economic growth and produced the leading world economies, such as China and India. It is therefore sound to state globalization as both effective and affective, in the sense that it has led to the growth of economies and led to the interference of many lives around the globe. There has been a rapid and enormous growth in global trade since the end of World War II, in the terms of rampant international trade due to the increased interactions and relations amongst regions and states. The communication sector has seen a huge reduction and improvement in the terms of costs, which have declined intensely and improved the communication networks. The reduction in the communication costs has facilitated the relationship between nations, and thereby facilitated international trade. The growth in international trade has led to the rampant growth in the global trade, with cheaper communication through the use of the web, telephones and other mobile devices, and the outsourcing and innovation in the information and technology sector. Globalization has impacted on the trade sector of the economy, especially on the international trade that has affected direct foreign investments and the larger international capital flows. The process of high interdependence among states and their citizens, due to globalization, during the global economic downturn has proven to have negatively affected many economies that have been struggling to get back to an economic on-toe. Many state economies are affected by the poverty levels, which demand the implementation of strategic economic policies. Poverty reduction strategies must be employed in order to facilitate sustainable poverty reduction indices, which are raised by economic growth. Economic growth requires policy frameworks to be able to counter the unpredicta ble global economy. The responsibility of economic policy in the developing states or countries is rested upon the respective governments, with critical international trade relations playing vital roles in the development and sustenance of international trade, and the global trade at large. The development of the international trade mainly depends on the governments of the developing countries, the determinants of the global intellectual climate, governmental and non-governmental organizations, and individuals (Claes & Knutsen, 2011). The economic globalization has resulted from the increase in international trade, especially involving manufactured foods and other products, the increase in the international financial flow, in addition to the increase in the flow of labor (Sweeney, 2005). There has been intensively growing research on globalization and the global economy to unearth the impacts of globalization on the global economy since the end of World War II. After World War II, t here was the establishment of the international financial order to facilitate the resolution of the global trade volume and maintain a steady economic growth (Mcandrew, 2009). The occurrence of the global economic downturn due to the war, known as the Great Depression, affected global trade, with states employing

Distinguish between accounts that are presented in the income Essay

Distinguish between accounts that are presented in the income statement and balance sheet - Essay Example The accounts used in income statement representation or preparation are, revenue, expenses, losses and profit accounts while those that are used in the preparation of balance sheet are assets, liabilities and owners equity accounts. Good example of liabilities and equity accounts are taxes, notes, loans, payroll accounts and many more. It is easier to represent this two difference balance sheet and income statement accounts through a chart of accounts, this is a list of all the accounts that are used to record financial transactions (Berezin, 2005). Current assets this are the materials or goods that one have in an organization or business that are disposable for certain returns within a short period of time , majorly they are the stock of the business and they controls the inflow of cash into the business through a short time. While current liabilities are the debt that ones have to other people or the current debt of the business this is control by the creditors account. To relates the two there is a ratio that is used known as the current ratio this differentiate the two by dividing each other and an increase in current asset through a reduction in current liabilities shows that the business is doing fine, but an increase in current liabilities through a decrease in current asset proof that the business is under duress and something should be done to reduce that short. This is the dependency between the two, ones increase leads to the other decrease. To relate the two through balance creation or changes is an increase in cur rent asset leads to a reduction in current liabilities through payments; thus, reducing the debt or creditors balance while increasing the asset balance in the business (Fields, 2011). Considerations of current asset and liabilities are one of the fundamentals of a business; the relationship between the two is what keeps the business alive and kicking. The two are mainly related to payment terms and inventory policies. This is

Interaction between Information Systems (ISIT) and business strategies Essay

Interaction between Information Systems (ISIT) and business strategies in an Banking organisation - Essay Example The study will use case studies where a sample size of 10 banks will be randomly selected in London and used for the purpose of study. For data collection, face to face interview will be conducted with the general manager and the IS manager of these banks. An observational check list will be used to collect information to assess the effectiveness of the model in each bank. Data will be collected over a period of one month. The data collected will be analyzed using simple analytical means of percentages, means and deviation and later subjected to regression analysis. The study will assume that the sample selected will be a representative of the whole population and that researcher will secure appointments with the managers. With the world turning to a global village, the world financial sector is under pressure to catch up with the new developments. Having been a conservative economic sector confined to their indigenous areas of operation, banks are facing pressure with increasing competition. Many banks have resulted to expansion strategies in order to serve their customers wherever they travel in this dynamic world. This has posed a challenge to many banks in terms of coordination of its services. Many other banks have resulted to mergers in order to have an international presence. Ideally, all banks have resulted to expansion strategy in one way or another. Due to large area of operation, banks have been faced with a problem of coordinating all their braches or merger partners. Banking industry has been in the front line in embracing the ever changing face of information system in order to coordinate their services well. But at the same time, many banks have found that embracing information systems may not stream line their services as intended. They have found information system has come up with its own woes. In some banks it has been found to be too expensive, cumbersome and creating a lot of inconveniences. It has lead to a lot of frauds which has led to losses to many financial institutions. This research aims at investigating how banks are implementing their information system, the reason for turning to information system, and the challenges they are facing in implementation of the strategy. The research hopes to compare information systems strategies in different banks to show models which have succeeded and which have failed in order to provide banks with resource material which they can refer if they want to implement a new IS strategy or to upgrade their existing one. Statement of the problem Many financial institutions have found it difficult to keep up with the changing demand of the banking sector in wake up of globalization. They have been faced with numerous challenges in streamlining their operations and relationship with their customers. Having resulted to new strategies using IS, many of them have found that the systems are not that efficient and they are faced with the same problem of efficiently. Purpose of the study The study aims at proving a critical comparison of different IS models that are being used in the banking sector today to provide resources information for the banking sector on the most efficient models as it will have studied. It aims at giving

Elements of art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Elements of art - Essay Example I observe many things as I look at this painting. If for instance, we don’t know the date when this painting was painting, we would notice that it was made during the Renaissance or after that period due to its atmospheric perspective. After the camera was invented in 1839, artists tried to make their paintings look real and as good as they could. William painted this painting almost as perfect as a real photo. If you goggle Porto Venere, you will see some pictures of this place which looks the same as in this painting. Looking at this painting, I feel cool and relaxed since, it gives me that beautiful feeling you have when you walk on the beach and the drizzles from the waves hit you smoothly. In this painting, there is no real texture which appears as brushwork and impasto. However, bold or noticeable texture appears a little bit on the rocks. Value in this painting includes high-key and low-key. High key appears almost in the middle visible horizontal line starting from the middle of the building moving towards its right side. Low key value appears on the waves, the clouds, the rocks and the mountains. Together, the high-key and low-key values make a strong contrast as is visible At first sight of the painting. In this painting, space is obviously noticeable. The front houses overlap the other house and the big mountain behind the house overlaps the other mountain. The rocks as well overlap each other. In addition, the shading in the waves and the clouds indicate space, different sizes, and positions of the buildings, the rocks and the mountains. The perspective of this painting indicates space too as it appears as atmospheric view in this painting. In this painting, colors appear natural. Appearing in this painting, some of the natural colors is blue(on the waves) and green(on the mountain top). Some parts of the waves have a tint of blue making them look lighter than blue whereas, some parts of the waves have

Summary Report - Triumph of the Nerds, Parts 2 Essay

Summary Report - Triumph of the Nerds, Parts 2 - Essay Example IBM is one player that made entry into the industry through Tom Watson and Tom Watson Jr. The idea was forthright, and IBM saw an opportunity to use in venturing into the PC market. In 1979, IBM selected Bill Lowe the head of the team. The presenter goes ahead to state that despite IBM having all the necessary components in building the architecture of the PC, they had one crucial problem as they lacked the appropriate OS to run the PC as well as the language. Bill Gates having been in the programing language sector, was approached by IBM, but instead directed them to Gary Kildall who had developed CPM. Kildall’s wife refused to accent to the request for CPM and IBM went back to Bill Gates who acquired QDOS from Tim Patterson at a cost of $50,000, only to later license it to IBM at a cost of $50 per PC. On the release of IBM PCs in 1981, 2 million PCs were sold. The presenter goes ahead to state that IBM woes never ended. Since Tim Patterson and Bill Gates never sold licenses to IBM, they were able to sell them to other PC manufactures and this ideally reduced IBM’s market share. Intel, who had made IBM’s CPU like Microsoft were able to sell their products to other PCs manufacturers, which reduced IBM’s market more. Other players such as Compaq then made entry into the market by selling IBM clone PCs, making significant profits, and capturing great market share. Considering that Microsoft had all the necessary requirements after the development of their Windows OS, they ventured into the billion-dollar market, becoming a key player in the industry. IBM, however, with the lack of strategies to prevent Microsoft and Intel from selling their products to other manufactures lost their share in the market into the dust. The presenter has made it clear how various players emerged into the PC industry, some making substantive progress while others getting toppled along the way. The presentation

Confederation and Constitution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Confederation and Constitution - Essay Example The benefits of the Articles of Confederation including the signing of an alliance between the United States and France in 1778. The American Revolution succeed due to the unity that existed between the States. The government successfully negotiated to end the American Revolution. The Articles of Confederation facilitated the formation of an organized government that allowed inhabitants to roam freely in all the states. It played a crucial role given that it was formulated at a time when the States had no agreement. Most people were skeptical about the formation of a central government because the unfair treatment by the British was still fresh in their memories. The Articles of Confederation had a unicameral system of government in which Congress was the only branch of government. On the contrary, the U.S. Constitution has three branches of government, which include the legislative, executive, and the judiciary. Every branch of government is independent. The Executive is mandated to carry out the law; the legislative makes the law, and the judiciary interprets the law. Under the Articles of Confederation, the national government had powers to declare war, negotiate peace, handle foreign affairs, borrow money, manage the monetary system, settle disputes between states, create a navy and build an army by asking for troops from the different states. The U.S. Constitution gave the National Government more powers. In the U.S. Constitution, the central government has is mandated to collect taxes, handle foreign affairs, raise and maintain an army.

The Woman in Black Review Essay Example for Free

The Woman in Black Review Essay Upon the arrival in London my anticipation was high. My first impression of the Fortune Theatre was; it was a very old Victorian building, very small and slightly ragged. Upon entering it felt very cramped and made you feel claustrophobic. The atmosphere was eerie due to the old style of the building. This was particularly effective as the play was set in the Victorian period. This made you feel as if you were in the past. Also the narrow staircase and small seating area created effect. Before the play starts there is no background music played to set a scene or image in the audiences mind. The play starts without warning and lights go down and we are straight into the story. The play is set in a theatre and the audience see the actors rehearsing a manuscript to an empty crowd. At first the older actor was reading his story as if he was an appalling actor. This technique used was effective and gave some comic relief at the start of the play. He mumbled his words without emotion which was in total contrast to the younger actor. The younger actor was very articulate and pronounced his words properly, both characters spoke with posh accents. By doing this it lulled the audience in to an almost false sense of security. Fans blew into the theatre to make the ambience cold and chilling. Diagram of the Stage The audience were seated in front of the stage. This was so the whole audience would all see the play in the same way. Also this would ensure the woman in black wouldnt be able to be spotted. The set was open and most things on the stage were shown. There was a clothes rack which was covered, a wicker basket which was closed and some metal buckets. There was a door which was shut but we did not know to where it would lead. However during the play we discovered a whole new dimension to the stage. Behind a gauze there was another part of the stage. If this had been shown some of the creative element would have been lost as we wouldnt be surprised to see it. Also the fact the only time the audience saw the back of the stage was when the actors themselves were present there. This would link the audience to the actor and heighten the personal bond. Spotlights were used a lot in this production. It persuaded the audience to focus on one area of the stage. It also gave a creepy effect, as you could not see the whole of the stage, therefore you would not know what was happening in the black spots. Images were also shone on to a translucent curtain showing at the position of the actors. This included a crucifix. This was effective as it was a very overpowering image, which embraces the audience as it is the first scary moment of the play. The other image was of the house in which the Woman in Black haunts. It gives you a mental representation of what the building would look like. Upon seeing this building, it was obvious a catastrophe was immanent. The lighting also represented where they were. For instance the actors were on a train and the windows of another train passed. This made you jump and started a continuous pattern of many frights to come. Sometimes the lack of lighting built up the atmosphere. At one time the stage was dark until the actor lit a match which illuminated his face. The effect of this was astonishing, such a simple thing as a match built up the scene immediately. The match was very effective because it was less bright than a spotlight and would not show off the surroundings. A torch was also used in the same way as the match but was just as effective as it showed a specific area. After seeing this used I realised how effective low light can be to create suspense and confusion. Sometimes the light came as a relief for the audience. In the first half of the play whenever there was a scary part normal lighting would come in to effect and give the audience relief from the intenseness. This almost gave the audience a false sense of security. The most effective use of the lighting was the way in which the Woman in Blacks face was bright white and prominent. The audience never quite managed to see the full complexion of her face as she was not still for long. However it showed enough to keep the audience intrigued and for them to know it was a ghost. The darkness created a spooky air about a scene but there was music to accompany it. Recorded sound was also used in this play. In the same way as lighting it set the scene and emulated a climax. For instance it was used to create a scene in an office by the ticking of a clock. The main way sound was used was to build up a climax. A recorded sound of a rocking chair would always represent a terrifying image about to appear; the Woman in Black. We would associate sounds to images. It was an almost psychotic repetitive noise, which at first time of hearing may not have been distinguished as anything important. Another petrifying noise was an ear piercing, frightful scream. It sounded like it was made by someone in the utmost agonising pain who had gone insane with rage. It most certainly made the audience jump as it was played very loudly at an unexpected moment. However I considered it to be more than just a short fright. The sound was very disturbing. The way in which it died out gently also made you wonder what the person making it was feeling. It conjured up an image of someone who could not cope with what was happening to them. They let all the rage out in one long blast. It was played a number of times, each very chilling. It did not lose the effect, as it was played unexpectedly each time, thus you heard it in another situation and dimension. The other main recording was of a horse and trap coming slowly to a halt and then crashing. This is played at the end of the play and is a backbone to the plot. It is an equally disturbing noise not one you would chose to listen to regularly. This was also used to show an image you could not see and would put that picture vividly into your mind. After the crash it was followed by a dampened scream (slightly less potent than the previous, but equally as disturbing! ). The lighting and sound contributed immensely to the play. Without the immaculate and synchronized use of sound and lighting the plays ferocity (it has in copious amounts) would be lost, no matter how good the actors were. The attire used by the actors was very Victorian. They wore waistcoats and suits, making themselves look respectable. The older man would change clothes which also changed his character. This technique was effective as there were only two main actors. I saw this skill used in another play Stones in His Pockets which consisted of only two actors. The Woman in Black wore a black cloak with a bonnet to cover a lot of her face and hair. Her long cloak covered her feet most of the time giving the impression that she floated instead of walking. Accompanied by the sound and lighting was the immensely impressive acting. The younger actor gave a solid performance in his role of an actor. However many of his facial expressions were very modern and contemporary, these would not have been used in the Victorian times. Sometimes also his diction sounded very forced in comparison to the older man who had a very calm and constant accent. The older actors accent sounded like it was his own normal voice and was how he spoke. One of the younger actors most elaborate and perfect factors was his frustration when he was playing the older actor when he was young. This made you forget he was acting and made the audience accept as true the fact that he was the older actor when he was young and not actually acting him. Both actors were extremely talented, the older man was flawless. His overall performance as all the characters was outstanding. I enjoyed how he got into his first role when he puts on his glasses. The gradual transition is very effective and amusing. His acting in natural situations was actually completely natural, which made everything believable. One of my favoured characters of his was the driver Ketwick. This was very well done and brought some comic relief to the play. As in many of his characters he used his hands a lot to express himself. A very good example of this was at the end when the younger actor congratulates him on bringing a woman. The older man reacts as if he doesnt know what he is talking about. This was not strained nor was it milked, they spent just enough time to put across to the audience. A subtle sign of his perfection was the whole way through the play he never looks at the Woman in Black making the end believable. However an important role has been missed out. The Woman in Black is easy to forget as an actor and could be overshadowed by the other actors and also you think of her as an actual ghost. Her facial expressions were stern and ferocious. The audience could see the fury in her eyes. She walked concisely and smoothly almost floating. Yet at one point she ran which was petrifying, as you did not know where she was going to end up. Her facial expressions were good, a little more frightening effect could have been gained if her face was more cadaver like. Nevertheless it was clever of the director to not include her in the program and not for her to take a bow. This made you constantly scared of her, as you do not think of her as a real person. After saying how effective sound was in this play I think the lack of it was more effective. The long silences followed by a noise or person would always make you jump. The silences would always build the suspense and get you ready for something bad to happen. After the loud, unexpected sounds there were many long pauses, which added to the sinister atmosphere. In my opinion this was the most effective use of sound. By the end of the play there was still a disturbing ambience as I walked away. I had thoroughly enjoyed the play and was suitably scared. Any more and I may not have been able to sleep. I took away many aspects of acting, which could be useful in the future. The use of silence and torches in the darkness were some of my favourites. The play was enjoyable and funny but also terrorizing. One of the most amusing parts was the dog spider scene. This was hard to act as they were pretending there was a dog but it was done with the utmost ease. It was funny how the older man kicked the dog saying it does what I say. If I was a critic for a magazine my short caption would read; The Woman in Black is a play with a distressing plot, of ghastly ghostly terror. Set in the Victorian times it sends a feeling of emptiness and solitude through you, nevertheless an obvious first choice for taking the young ones to see, to appreciate and learn from the immaculate actors and use of stage crew!

Demographics of Online Shoppers

Demographics of Online Shoppers Abstract This dissertation aims at developing profiles of Greek consumers who have already conducted purchases through the Internet and of the consumers who are willing to adopt the Internet shopping as an innovation. Measurement of the demographic and behavioural data, investigation of the trends and attitudes of the online consumers toward online apparel shopping. The research will provide insightful preliminary data based on the detailed profiles of Internet shoppers (innovators) and interested-to-adopt Internet shopping (early adopters). The empirical findings will provide valuable managerial implications while setting the foundation for future research in this topic. Introduction The Importance of the Research Internet gained the trust of more than 1,5 billion users around the globe (world Stats, 2009) and became the most important tool of almost every international business (Mc donald and Tobin, 1998; Rha et al., 2002; Urban, 2003). The majority of the web users is taking advantage of the globalization and the online prices.In some countries the percentage of the online shoppers is reaching the 95% according to the Nielsen Online Report (2008). The same report indicates that the users which prefer the internet for frequent purchases is 39% and about 84% of the users concluded the purchase of a product once every month through the Internet the last two years of the study. The total sales in Europe are expected to be more than 407 billion dollars by the end of the 2011. According to the same report UK, France and Germany hold more than 70 percent of the total European sales followed by Italy and Spain. The structures of the web sites profess differences because of the culture but also common characteristics (Okazaki et al., 2006). In the next few years because of the globalization of the media there is evidence of a new global culture, the digital culture (Deuze, 2006) Hofman and Novak (1996) described the online apparel shopping as a new kind of consumer behavior according to computer mediated shopping environment. The researchers seek to develop the past theories of customers behavior while retailers seek to establish successful strategies by knowing better their customers (Goldsmith and Mcgregor, 1999). Paisley According Paisley to Paisley Lohse Paisley and Paisley Spiller Paisley (1998, Paisley p.81) Paisley there Paisley are Paisley large Paisley differences Paisley between Paisley a Paisley physical Paisley store Paisley and Paisley its Paisley electronic Paisley counterpart Paisley and Paisley the Paisley online Paisley shopping Paisley by Paisley nature Paisley is Paisley an Paisley innovating Paisley experience Paisley (Wang Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 1998). 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Paisley Thus, Paisley Paisley this Paisley research Paisley will try Paisley to Paisley emphasize Paisley into Paisley different Paisley modes Paisley of Paisley consumers (Internet shoppers and interested-to adopt Internet shopping) Paisley and Paisley not Paisley just Paisley through Paisley a Paisley simplistic Paisley analysis. Moreover, the research will highlight the differences and similarities of these consumers groups and to the Internet online apparel shopping, and clearly will provide some of the most important success ingredients that every online retailer should take under consideration. 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Authors developed a risk-taker profile of the online consumer (versus the in-store consumer) who is ready to perceive a higher risk (Donthu and Garcia, 1999; Schoenbachler and Gordon, 2002; Vijayasarathy and Jones, 2000). Researchers described PPaisley the online purchase of Paisley apparel Paisley products a decision with increased perceived risk Paisley (Bhatnagar Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 2000; Paisley PaisleHawes Paisley and Paisley Lumpkin, Paisley 1986). Paisley Internet Paisley shoppers are skeptical Paisley are scepticalPaisley to Paisley purchase or not Paisle PaisleyPaisley apparel Paisley products online Paisley Paisley because Paisley of Paisley the Paisley uncertainty Paisley next to the Paisley fit, Paisley fabric Paisley and Paisley color Paisley (Bhatnagar Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 2000). 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Gender Paisley is Paisley among Paisley the Paisley factors we need to emphasizePaisley whichww and previousPaisley Paisley research Paisley showed Paisley that Paisley women Paisley are Paisley more Paisley innovative Paisley than Paisley men Paisley (Goldsmith Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 1987). Paisley In Paisley a Paisley household Paisley the Paisley primary Paisley shoppers Paisley for Paisley apparel Paisley products Paisley are Paisley the female Paisley femalefffFFFFffffffffffer2wewsxxcdf]45421sPaisley (Dholakia Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 1995). Paisley Among Paisley young Paisley consumers Paisley (students) Paisley the Paisley differences Paisley are Paisley not Paisley that Paisley obvious Paisley but Paisley mainly Paisley focus Paisley on Paisley different Paisley shopping Paisley habits Paisley (Dholakia Paisley and Paisley Chiang, Paisley 2003). Paisley Paisley Paisley Paisley Paisley Paisley Consumer Characteristics Purchasers because of their different characteristics approaching the online apparel stores with many different ways and receiving different messages, which may affect their online purchases (Cheung et al., 2003). Therefore, we will have to emphasize to these characteristics because of their importance. Previous online purchase experiences, characteristics based on their personalities and the level of their innovative thinking when they go online to shop (Cheung et al., 2003) need to be discussed. Personalities The online shopping behaviors of the consumers are close attached to their personalities and may affect their choice of the online apparel stores and products (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). Therefore, we need to focus in two main consumers personalities: The utilitarian and hedonic personalities. Utilitarian Consumers Utilitarian consumers buying online based on their goal oriented shopping behaviors. Shopping is made according to their goals and rational necessary needs (Kim shim, 2002). They are trying to deliberate their shopping habits through rationality and efficiency and they are not searching for any kind of entertainment through shopping (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). Main aspect is to conclude their online shopping experience efficiently and in time without any kind of unnecessary irritation (Monsuwe, Dellaert Ruyter, 2004). Moreover, their instrumental characteristics guide their shopping experiences efficiently to a task oriented behavior (Sorce, Perotti Widrick, 2005) They are in search for sites offering variety of products, convenience, ease of access and multiple information among others (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). Hedonic Consumers Hedonic consumers defined according to experiential buying behavior. Their concern is not to gather as many information they are able to but at first to seek happiness sensory stimulation and some sort of enjoyable experiences (Monsuwe, Dellaert Ruyter, 2004). The hedonic consumers are trying to immerse into the experience in a greater way than achieving their goals by shopping online (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). They are trying to combine shopping with enjoyable experiences, playful sites and uniqueness (Sorce et al., 2005). Consequently, the hedonists when they get satisfied are increasing their visits and purchases to their favorite online apparel stores (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). Main differences between hedonic (experiential) and utilitarian (goal oriented) consumers behaviors. Their differences in personality, motivation and key aspect leads to a different interaction with the online apparel stores. The goal-oriented customers are guided from instrumental factors which may include the ease of access, the available information and the variety of selection. While the goal oriented consumers seek for control the experiential consumers seeking for fun and surprising web stores (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001; Sanchez-Franco Roldan, 2005). A summarization follows in Table 2.1 Compulsive shopping According to Wolfinbarger and Gilly (2001) more than 72% of the shoppers are goal oriented and followed some sort of plan on their recent purchases, and 28% of the shoppers are experiential and decided a purchase while they were browsing. Moreover, research has shown that even if the goal oriented customers represent the majority, the experiential consumers and their browsing attitude are welcome, because of their close connection with high impulse purchases and frequency (Wolfinbarger Gilly, 2001). Innovativeness Innovation described as the degree to which an individual . is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than the other members of a system (Rogers, 1995). Several researchers referred to the different characteristics of the innovative consumers. Most of them are: higher or highest education (Leung, 1998; Pepermans et al., 1996;) mostly young consumers (Hirschman and Adcock, 1978;) income is higher than the average (Pepermans et al., Summers, 1972;) higher social activity (Robertson and Kennedy, 1968; Roggers, 1995;) risk takers (Leung, 1998; Roggers, 1995;) opinion leaders (Darden and Reynolds, 1974; Chau and Hui, 1998;) women in majority (Goldsmith et al., 1987) Researchers have tried to analyze the role of gender or/and race on innovation and clearly saw that the women are more likely to be innovative than men. The key aspect of the innovation seems is the new products to adopted by the consumers in the market (Leung, 1998; Pepermans et al., 1996). The higher acceptance of the new innovative products as the World Wide Web, may affect as well the use of the network for purchases(Citrin et al., 2000). The apparel online shoppers described mostly as innovators from other researchers (Goldsmith et al., 1995). Goldsmith and Flynn (2004) defined that online apparel purchasers could not be distinguished from non-purchasers by their demographics, but they were more innovative toward clothing and fashions than the non-purchasers. Online apparel purchasers, however, did use the Internet more and were more innovative toward using the Internet than non-purchasers were. The innovative online consumers more likely will purchase apparel online instead of the non-purchasers which are less innovative. Theoretical Framework Rogers (1995) proposed a five-stages process for the innovation to be adopted by an individual. The first one is the knowledge stage, a stage on which an individual tries upon previous experience to understand an innovation and its characteristics. The knowledge derives from the social environment, understanding of problems and general innovativeness. The Persuasion stage which is the second one, represents the development of every positive and negative attitude upon innovation as a result of the knowledge stage. The perceived elements (Rogers, 1995) which are going to influence the adoption of an innovation are: The relative advantage in other words the consumers will assume the advantageous role of the innovation and the adoption will be faster. The compatibility aspect if the consumers recognize in the innovation compatibility with their lifestyle, there is a greater possibility to adopt the innovation. The complexity issue the consumers will examine the innovation and if they think that is easy to use, maybe will adopt earlier the innovation. The trial ability a trial of the innovation will make it easier for the consumers to adopt it. The observation ability the chance of observing the results of each innovation may speed up the adopt timeframe. Another researcher examined the five elements and discovered that the relative advantage, compatibility aspect, the trial ability and the observation ability are positively connected to adoption of every innovation and complexity issue is negatively connected to the adoption of an innovation. In the decision stage which is the third one, the consumer decides to adopt or to reject the innovation according to his/her attitude created during the persuasion stage (Rogers, 1995). The behavioral change will be visible during the fourth stage, the implementation stage. During that stage the consumer will act on his decision of the approval or the rejection of an innovation. Even at this stage the consumer holds a level of uncertainty about the scope of the innovation and will keep collecting information about the innovation. During the last stage according to Rogers (1995), the confirmation stage, the consumer will re-examine the innovation and will reach to a new decision whether or not he will continue to adopt the innovation. Purchasers Browsers and Searchers Internet users have different aspects when they go online. Some users are online because of their intention to buy apparel online (purchasers), but the browsers may not interested to buy online. A search for extra information on the websites is what made them to go online in some of the cases. The searcher is a goal oriented consumer who is online to search for information in a productive way in order to fulfill his goals (Ha Stoel, 2004). A task oriented behavior, more as pre-purchase deliberation and an intention to conclude a purchase next to the gathering of information online are the characteristics of the searcher. Schlosser (2004), defines the consumer known as a browser, an experiential shopper who seeks more and more for an entertaining experience. If the websites are able to fulfill the aspects of the searchers and browsers may transform them to purchasers. Ha Stoel(2004), assumes that all three kind of potential shoppers (purchasers, browsers and searchers) may show different online shopping attitude on a specific site and may consider the advantages of the online apparel shopping in a different way because of their goals. The browsers and not the searchers according to schlosser (2004), affected more from vivid images. Consumers Attitudes Darwin (1872) mentioned the attitudes as a physical action of a thought. Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) through their work Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior : An introduction to Theory and Research focused on the prediction of the human behavior through their theory of the reasoned actions. Ajzen (1987) developed the theory of the reasoned actions to the theory of planned behavior. The model suggested by Fishbein still is the most popular among researchers but among psychologists is Fazios (1986) attitude accessibility model. Fishbeins Multi-attribute Model Fishbeins claims that the consumers form attributes towards objects on the basis of their beliefs (perceptions and knowledge) about these objects. Since a consumer may hold different beliefs about an object it may be difficult to get the overall perception of a product such as the McDonalds if they are good or bad for the consumers (Perner, 2006). Within this framework a persons attitude toward an object is a function of his beliefs about an object and the implicit evaluative responses associated with those beliefs (Karjaluoto, 2006). Beliefs are acquired by the processing information, which are obtained from direct experiences with objects and from interaction with other sources. Moreover, if there is a need to understand consumers attitudes adequately, a determination of the beliefs that form the basis of these attitudes is necessary (Fishbein and Steiner, 1965). The model focus in three attributes of the attitude: The salient beliefs people hold about an attitude object, e.g. those beliefs which are the first to come in mind; Object-attribute linkages, or the probability, that a particular object has an important attribute. Evaluation of each one of the important attributes. Upon any case, the model created on assumptions that may prove wrong on everyday practice. At first assumes that exists the ability to specify adequately all the relevant attributes. This model also assumes that he/she will go through the process (formally or informally) of identifying a set of relevant attributes, evaluating them and measuring the overall outcome. Without any attempt of questioning this model, which is clearly a high-involvement subject, it is still possible that the consumers attitude will be formed by an overall affective response (Solomon et al., 1992). Since any kind of object, such as a product or a brand, has numerous attributes (size, features, shape etc), an individual will collect information and develop beliefs quite different according to the provided individual attributes. Positive or negative feelings are also formed on the basis of the beliefs held about the attributes. Thus, the persons overall attitude toward an object is derived from the beliefs and feelings created by the various attributes of the model and that is why the model is referred as a Multi attribute model or as the Fishbeins attitude model (Newman and Foxall, 2003). The Multi attribute model tries to summarize the overall attitudes by using the following equation (Hawkins et al., 1998): Where: Ao = the persons overall attitude toward the object-Characteristics of the attitude object (e.g. Reputation of a College) bi = the strength of his belief that the object is related to this attribute (e.g. the strength of belief that Wrangler Jeans are durable, or the belief that on line shopping is a convenient way to shop) ei = the evaluation or intensity of feelings (liking or disliking) toward attribute-the priority consumers place on an object. Some A (attitudes) will be more important than others. i.e. (Library resources, social environmentpriorities). n = the number of relevant beliefs for that person ( Loudon and Bitta, 1994) According to the above mentioned formula the weight of importance of a belief towards an object (bi) is multiplied with the evaluation i.e. of` the product. For example, a consumer believes that the taste of a refreshment is moderately important or a 4 in a scale of importance from 1 to 7.He/she also believes that drinking coffee feels very good, or 6 on a scale from 1 to 7.Thus the product overall grade here is 4*6 =24.The customer also believes that the potential of a drink to stain is extremely important (7), and coffee fares moderately badly at -4 on this attribute (since this is a negative belief, for this purpose we are taking numbers from -1 to -7 with -7 being worst). The total score for this belief is 7*(-4) =-28.If we hold these two beliefs the aggregated attitude would have been 24+(-28)=-4.In real life, it is obvious that consumers tend to have many more beliefs and their summary will provide an accurate measurement (Perner, 2006). Based on this multi-attribute model, marketers may consider four strategies when attempting to affect behavior: Change the value placed on a particular product attributes (a change in an ei component) Change beliefs (a change in a b1 component) Change the attitude toward the brand (A change in Ao) Change behavioral intentions (a change in BI) or behavior change in B (Assael, 1992) The Fishbeins attitude-towards object model has been relatively successful in predicting, behavioral intentions arising by various cognitive variables to which they refer (Birtwistle and Shearer, 2001; Doyle and Fenwick, 1974; Fishbein, 1967; Bass and Talarzyk, 1972). For example, excessive usage of the model to measure different advertisements or store brands. The tangible attributes and the utility versus the intangible ,symbolic attributes. However, this approach has not always been useful results for the retail management, as the knowledge of a customers attitude about a brand is not always a safe predictor of their actual behavior (Wicker, 1967). Furthermore, the model allows marketers to focus on the important issues of their consumers. Examines the effectiveness of their brand in providing the necessary attributes, and how marketers stack up against their competitors (Karjaluoto, 2006). By all means a negative response of the consumers to one feature of a brand does not necessarily eliminates the consumers connection with the specific brand. According to Wilkie and Pessemier (1973) the most important aspect of the multi-attribute model is: The advantage of multi-attribute models is in gaining understanding of attitudinal structure. Diagnosis of brand strengths and weaknesses on relevant product attributes can then be used to suggest specific changes in a brand and its marketing support. The retailers tried to take advantage of the Multi attribute model in a way to predict the behavior of their consumers. Although, the use of the model was inappropriate and in some of the cases unacceptable. As a result, the forecast of the consumers behavior was not accurate (Sheppard, 1988): The model was developed to deal with the actual behavior (e.g. taking an aspirin), not with the outcomes of behavior (e.g. allergy), which is assessed in some studies (Solomon et al., 2002) Consumption situations may vary and this is going to influence the strength of the attitude behavior relationship (Bearden and Woodside, 1976). In fact, evidence suggests that consumers attitudes toward brands can actually vary depending on the situation (Miller and Ginter, 1979). Time usually elapses while consumers forming attitudes and when they are ready to act on these. During that time, many variables expected and unexpected may intervene to affect behavior. For example, an unexpected need for a new family car could quickly postpone, or cancel, plans to purchase a new motorcycle (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). The consumers attitudes toward some types of behavior are influenced by his evaluation of the perceived consequences (positive or negative) of taking such action. Therefore, these attitudes are more relevant for predicting consumers attitudes toward the objects themselves (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). Consumers are often influenced by their perceptions of what others will think of their actions. Thus, even though a consumer may have a favorable attitude toward making a purchase, he may refrain from doing so because of his perception that other people, who are very important to him (such as his/her friends) might not approve his action. This influence noted as subjective norm (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). New models able to adjust to the formed complexity introduced and the above-mentioned factors were used as a guide. As a result, Fishbein introduced the Behavioral Intentions model (Loudon and Bitta, 1994) in an attempt to escape from the traditional attitude toward object model to a more attitudes towards behavior model (Thoradeniya, 2006). Fishbeins Behavioral Intentions Model This revised model presented by Fishbein and contributed by Ajzen (1975), was designed to include the persons evaluation about performing certain behaviour. Their attitude toward the behaviour and additionally the social pressure experienced when performing the behaviour, like the subjective norm (Stephen, 2002). The theory of reasoned action is different from the traditional attitude theories in a manner of introducing normative influences to the overall model and a causal relationship between the two antecedents and intention (Ha, 1998). Subjective norms are determined by the consumers beliefs about the actions of the others regarding his intended behaviour and his motivations to comply with their standards of behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1980). The subjective norms reflect as well the individuals sense to behave in an acceptable manner (Teo and Loosemore, 2001). Normative beliefs in general involve specific individuals or groups rather than generalised important others(Fishbein and Ajzen, 1980). In addition, the persons behaviour is a function of his/her intention to behave in a certain manner (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). For example, a womans attitude towards birth control pills maybe favourable, but the pressure exerted by family and friends could represent the subjective norm, which may result in a negative attitude towards using them (Johnson and Fishbein, 2003). Fishbeins expressed relationships in equation form as: As the model indicates, in order to predict the consumers behavior, the researcher must determine the consumers attitude toward the specific behavior in question (AB) and his subjective norm (SN). Each of these will be weighted by w1 and w2 respectively (which add up to 1.0) to reflect their relative importance in influencing the behavioural intentions (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). The consumers attitudes toward performing a specific behaviour has the same structure as in the Fishbeins Multiattribute model. The important change here is that beliefs and evaluations concern certain actions, and the consequences of these actions, affect the attributes of the object (Ha, 1998). These beliefs are called behavioural beliefs. An individual will attempt to perform certain behaviour because of his evaluation upon beliefs. Attitudes are determined by the individuals beliefs about the consequences of performing according to a specific behaviour (behavioural beliefs) and his concerns about the above mentioned consequences (outcome evaluations).Those attitudes have a direct effect on behavioural intention and are linked with subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (Brown, 1999). A number of issues and limitations of the Fishbein Behavioural Intentions model need further examination, since the potential number of factors affecting attitude are infinitive. Other researchers are involved with the thoughts of the consumers before their decision upon action. We are not able to apply these theories in the organisational buyer behaviour because of the complexity of the influencing factors which affect this kind of behaviour (Thompson and Panayiotopoulos, 1999). Moreover, there is a significant risk between attitudes and subjective norms since attitudes can often be reframed as norms and vice versa. In practice the consumer suffer from several constraints such us limited ability, time, environmental or organisational limits and unconscious habits. It is also very important to note, that although the theory assumes that behaviours are influenced only by intentions, other authors suggest that attitudes and past attitudes have a direct influence on future behaviour(Bargh, 1997). According to the above-mentioned frame the current behavior may be habitual and triggered by environmental stimuli and may be elicited unintentionally when an evaluative representation is present (Bargh, 1997). However, the implications of this model are extremely important for the marketers, while there is a specific need for understanding the factors which affect the consumers intentins. Past research strengths the ability to identify the most important attributes, which forced the consumers to form negative or positive attitudes towards a purchase of a product (Ha, 1998). It is also a valuable tool to proceed with the identification of the sources of the social environment and their possible role in intention. (Ha, 1998). These attitudinal and subjective-norm components are helpful to marketers to analyse and understand/predict the consumers behaviour. Moreover, they are useful because of their suggestions to alternative marketing strategies for the evaluation and change of the consumers attitudes and intentions to act (Loudon and Bitta, 1994). Online Apparel Shopping Intention The representation Paisley of Paisley what Paisley we Paisley think Paisley we Paisley will Paisley buy Paisley (Blackwell Paisley et Paisley al., Paisley 2001, Paisley p. Paisley 283) describes the online appare

Methods of measuring stress and their effectiveness

Methods of measuring stress and their effectiveness Firstly introduced by Hans Selye (1950), the term stress is more used to describe an individuals state of tension which is often seen as being related to modern life. However, stress assessment is made using different method which includes: Self report Biomedical Physiological Self report: Life events (Holmes and Rahe 1976) The most common way of assessing stress is by self-report questionnaires, in which individuals answer questions about their mental or physical state. As a result, two medical doctors, Holmes and Rahe (1976) suggested that major life events, whether good or bad, were potentially stressful. Holmes and Rahe were the first to record the effects of life events in a systematic way. By their study, they observed that patients often experienced several life events in the months before the onset of illness, and as a result, these life events seemed to be associated with poor health and stress. They suggested that, stress is caused by change that can lead to greater susceptibility to physical and mental health disorders. They demonstrated the associations between life events, stress and illness by developing some method of measuring life events. Accordingly, they compiled the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) by examining 5000 patient records and making a list of 43 life events both posi tive and negative that seemed to precede illness . Approximately 400 participants were involved in the rating of each item in terms of the quantity of stress produced, out of which 500 was assigned to marriage as a reference point. The averaged results were then divided by 10 to get a measure of the individual events in terms of life change units (LCU). An example of Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) LIFE EVENTS Rank Life Event Stress Value 1 Death of a spouse 100 2 Divorce 73 3 Marital separation 65 4 Jail term 63 5 Death of a close family member 63 6 Personal injury or illness 53 7 Marriage 50 8 Fired at work 47 9 Marital reconciliation 45 10 Retirement 45 13 Sex difficulties 39 23 Son or daughter leaving 29 38 Change in sleeping habits 16 40 Change in eating habits 15 41 Vacation 13 42 Christmas 12 43 Minor violations of the law law 11 Reference Adapted from Holmes, T., Rahe, R. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of psychosomatic research, 11, 213-218. Doctors, Holmes and Rahe (1967) findings suggested that the stress of life events is correlated with physical illness; hence experiencing life events increases the chances of stress-related health breakdown. They were however criticised for being bias by investigating only American men and using only correlational methods. à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ Assessing the effectiveness of the Self report as a method of stress measurement The SRRS provides the basis for perhaps the most active current area of stress research and also retrospective investigation using either the SRRS or SRE (Schedule of Recent Experience) have demonstrated a linear relationship between mounting life change, cardiac death, accidents, diabetes, leukaemia and infectious disease (Holmes Masuda, 1974). Using the research questionnaire, Holmes Rahe (1950) tested various sub-groups to see if the ratings were consistent, e.g. male and female, single and married and so on. As there was strong agreement between different groups, it seemed that the SRRS was a valid measure for all types of people regardless of their backgrounds. This contributes to the effectiveness of the self report method of stress measurement. This SRRS questionnaire (Holmes and Rahe, 1976) has served as a well-known tool for measuring the amount of stress one has experienced within the past year. Taking the test can help one see clearly if theyre at risk of illness due to stress. The method provided some of the first evidence that there is a genuine association between stressful life events and physical illness. Also, the fact that physical health was assessed after life events increases the chances that life events were helping to cause problems with physical health, rather than the other way round The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and the research associated with it represent a major breakthrough, this is because, it is now generally accepted that life events of various kinds can influence our psychological well-being and our physical and mental health. The development of the SRRS has made it easier to carry out research to test these ideas. This in turn has led to a clearer understanding of the ways in which life events affect us. Indirect evidence that stressful life events play a role in life threatening diseases was reported by Selye, Tache and Day (1979).According to these researchers, cancer was more common among adults who divorced, widowed or separated than among those who were married. The most likely explanation is that, those who were not married were stressed because of lack of social support. It is however hard to establish causal relationships from such data (SSRS data). Perhaps those who were divorced or separated were more vulnerable to stress than those who were married; hence, this stress vulnerability played a role in the collapse of their marriages One of the limitations to this method is that, it has often been assumed that almost any serious life can help to produce any type of illness. This has led to a relative ignoring of more specific effects. Supporting evidence to this effect was where, two men, Finlay -Jones and Brown (1981) found that anxious patients were more likely than depressed patients to have experienced danger events(involving future threats), whereas depressed patients were more likely to have experienced loss events (involving past loses). More research into such studies will however be useful. Another negative side of the SRRS is that, a number of studies have shown that peoples illness rates increase following increase rates in stress scores. However, a number of items on the scale are vague e.g. personal injury or illness appears to suggest that someone could have the same stress score for flu and cancer. Second, there is no general failure to consider the impact of an event on an individual. Christmas is considered to be a mildly stressful event, yet to some people, Christmas may seem extremely stressful, as it may emphasize their loneliness. The SRRS has face validity because many of the events listed are easily recognisable as stressful events. The values Allocated to each stress event have been carefully calculated from data provided by the opinions of many people. The survey form can be filled out easily and quickly. With reference to Raphael et al. (1991), Self-report measures of life events are unreliable. A study had subjects fill out a scale regarding life events they experienced during the prior year. The subjects then filled out the same Questionnaire every month for a year. Towards the end of the year the reports were quite different from the ones made at the beginning of the year (Raphael, et al. 1991). The questionnaire or scale also ignores chronic stresses such as money problems, general hassles etc. Taking this into account, the measure could be considered invalid. Biomedical: Stress and ulcers (Brady 1958) One of the biomedical methods of measuring stress is the evidence that stress may be a causal factor in stomach ulcers. This research was first described by Joseph Brady (1958). Brady did classic studies linking high levels of stress to increased hormone production and the development of ulcers. Brady did this by placing monkeys in restraining chairs and conditioned them to press a lever. The monkeys were then given shocks every 20 seconds unless the lever was pressed during the same time. This experiment however came to an abrupt halt when unexpectedly many of the monkeys died because of ulcers caused by raised gastrointestinal hormone levels. The question put forward was whether the ulcers resulted from the electric shock or the stress. To enhance his results, Brady and his mates used yoked controls where one monkey called executive was liable for controlling the lever while a second monkey received the shocks but had no control over the lever. Thus, only the executive monkey had t he physiological stress of having to press the lever, but both animals received shocks. After 23 days of 6 hours on and off schedule, the executive monkey died because of perforated ulcer. Brady initially thought that the stress might be related to the reinforcement schedule. He also tried several other routines such as 18 hours on and 6 hours off and tested the executive monkey to find out that stomach acidity was greatest during this period. After the experiment, Brady concluded that it was clearly stress, not the shocks that created the ulcers. Having said that, he also concluded that the greatest danger happened while the sympathetic arousal stopped and the stomach was flooded with digestive hormones, which is a parasympathetic rebound linked with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, hence HPA. Assessing the effectiveness of the biomedical as a method of stress measurement The research carried out by Brady (1958) proved effectively that stress may be a causal factor in stomach ulcers. Stress often increases the secretion of hydrochloric acid, which plays in the development of some ulcers. Stress also weakens the defences of the gastrointestinal tract against this acid, thereby permitting gastric ulcers to develop. (Pinel, 1997). Supporting evidence to the effectiveness of Bradys experiment is Weiner et al. (1957) findings in support to Bradys experiment. Weiner et al. (1957) used army recruits to test for the effectiveness of Bradys experiment. Prior to basic training, the soldiers were tested and classed on the basis of their release of digestive enzymes as over-secretors or under -secretors. After four months of stressful training, 14% of the over-secretors had developed ulcers, whereas none of the under-secretors had. This suggests not only that the same principles apply to humans, but also that individual differences may be important in view of the fact that not all of the over-secretors developed ulcers. Biochemical method of measuring stress involves adrenaline and noradrenalin hormones. These hormones provides effective measures of stress The research also suggested that too much stress at work can lead to development of ulcers. Bradys experiment was however criticised for not randomly selecting the monkeys and also, using non-human samples Subsequent research has also demonstrated that ulcers are not always stress related, there could be an underlying biological cause. E.g. fungi Bradys experiment is associated with the Hypothalamic -Pituitary-Adrenocortical Axis, this in effect elevates levels of glucose and some hormones including the ACTH (Acetylcholine) and the body continues to use its resources at an accelerating rate. Stress-triggered increases in heart rate and blood pressure. This may result in the deterioration and blocking of blood vessels thereby increasing cardiovascular disorders and chronic stress. Many physical, organisational and social factors in the workplace can become sources of stress, usually exerting a relatively long-term, stable and chronic influence. Work overload, lack of control, and poor interpersonal relations at work may all lead distress, ill health and eventual burnout. Hence, biomedical serves as a suitable method for assessing stress at a work place Physiological: Biofeedback Physiological measures in stress provide indications of the level of sympathetic nervous arousal. This can include a persons heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate and so on. One of the common physiological methods used in measuring stress is biofeedback. Biofeedback is a technique which involves recording the activity of the physiological systems of the bodys stress response, that is the heart rate, blood pressure or tension in the neck muscles. This enables the individual to monitor their own physiological arousal in real times and develop control over it (Gatchel, 1997). During the process, the individual is attached is attached to a machine which produces feedback about some physiological activity such as an auditory or visual signal to indicate whether his / her heart rate is too high or moderate. The individual is also trained in techniques to reduce physiological aspects of stress such as relaxation training. One of the common ways humans can learn to control their brain-waves is by using electroencephalogram (EEG) biofeedback. Electroencephalogram (EEG) An EEG involves placing electrodes on a persons scalp to record the small changes in electrical activity of the brain. These changes are displayed on a computer screen. EEGs are often used to measure changes in brain activity during the different stages of sleep; however, in biofeedback EEG is used to give visual feedback of the activity of the waking brain. Biofeedback training however involves three stages, they include: Developing an awareness of the particular physiological response such as the heart rate Learning ways of controlling that physiological response in quiet conditions. This can include providing rewards for successful control in addition to no feedback Transferring that control into the conditions of everyday life. Assessing the effectiveness of biofeedback as a method of measuring stress This method has been effective in significant long-term reductions in stress in everyday life and has also led to benefits by producing a sense of control rather than purely psychological methods. Attanasio et al (1985) researched and found that biofeedback helped teenagers and children with stress related disorders to gain control over the symptoms of migraine headaches. The approach was however criticised that it treated symptoms rather than underlying conditions. Biofeedback has enjoyed a brief surge of popularity since its inception in the late 1960s. It has successfully treated many medical problems, particularly stress related illnesses such as incontinence, anxiety, hypertension, circulatory problems, irritable bowel syndrome and so on. Since its inception, it has produced significant long term reductions in stress in everyday life without any side effects unlike the other physiological approach (drugs) Biofeedback may lead to benefits by producing a sense of control rather than purely psychological methods. It is however not invasive, but rather voluntary. Arguably, the benefits of biofeedback could be gained from another relaxation technique and so biofeedback is an unnecessary expense. This serves as a limitation to biofeedback as a method of measuring stress. Recommendation of one way of stress measurement for use by the company Above all these methods of measuring stress, I will recommend life events which falls under self report because it is by this way that the individual can fully express his/her feelings and pain through subjective questionnaire about their mental and physical state. Criteria 3.1 Physiological approach to stress management and control Stress control and management is the attempt that is made to cope with stress through reduction of the of the stress response. There are many approaches to reducing a persons stress levels, but usually, it is aimed at the physiological and psychological effects of stress. The basic target for stress management is usually based on changing the individuals perception of the stressor. Physiological approaches to stress management are techniques that try to control the bodys response to stress by reducing physiological activity. The physiological components of stress can include physiological arousal, sleep disturbance, fatigue, gastrointestinal disturbances, headaches, concentration problems, increased expression of irritability and anger, agitation, increased likelihood for illness, and reduced productivity. The impact and the expression of these stress symptoms vary with the individual and the stressful event. Two physiological methods for controlling stress include biofeedback and stress. However, I am going to evaluate one out these two, which is Anti-anxiety drugs technique. Anti-anxiety drugs Anti-anxiety drugs are medicines that are used calming and relaxing severe stress cases. They can also be used to calm nervousness, tension or for specific phobia disorder. The human body produces chemicals such as hormones and neurotransmitters that create anxiety, which can be countered using other chemical substances such as drugs that reduce anxiety. There are different types of anti- anxiety that work through different mechanisms. The most common drugs are: Beta-blockers Benzodiazepines Alcohol (rarely used) Beta-blockers Beta-blockers are one of the drugs used control stress by reducing activity in the sympathetic nervous system. They have a direct action on the heart and circulatory system hence; they decrease the heart rate and lower peripheral blood pressure. Their effects are on the body however, they do not have direct effects on brain activity. Lau et al. (1992) considered the findings from numerous studies in a meta-analysis hence combining data from several studies. Thus, beta-blockers have proved useful in reducing blood pressure and in treating patients with heart disease. Psychological research also concludes that, the drug reduced the risk of death by about 20% in patients suffering from heart disease. It also enhances performance in musicians and public speakers (Taylor 1995). However, one disadvantage of beta-blockers is that, they target symptoms rather than causes of anxiety and stress hence providing only temporary improvement. Benzodiazepines Sometimes when drugs are taken, they elapse in natural processes by controlling the action of neurotransmitters. Types of benzodiazepines include Valium and Librium which are used for increasing the neurotransmitter GABA, which decreases serotonin activity, which eventually reduces arousal. Benzodiazepines are very effective and used worldwide by approximately hundred million people. Despite its effectiveness, benzodiazepines have got some side effects which are linked to low levels of serotonin. Common effects can include drowsiness, causing of cognitive and memory impairments, feelings of depression, and interacting unpredictably with alcohol Ashton (1997). Another effect of the drug is that, it is more likely to be involved with accident. Strengths of Anti-anxiety drugs Anti-anxiety drugs can be very effective in controlling severe feelings of stress. Beta blockers for instance act on the autonomic nervous system to reduce heart rate/blood pressure physiological stress arousal. Anti-depressant drugs, less often used, can be appropriate for severe anxiety Benzodiazepines such as Valium increase the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain. Anti-anxiety drugs decrease arousal and relax the body by reducing tension in the muscles. Since stress response involves high arousal, tranquillizers may in some cases reduce stress Weaknesses of Anti-anxiety drugs Anti-anxiety drugs like benzodiazepines work by reducing brain activity. While this temporarily relieves anxiety, it can also lead to unwanted side effects. The higher the dose, the more pronounced these side effects typically are. But some people feel sleepy, foggy, and uncoordinated even on low doses of benzodiazepines, which can cause problems with work, school, or everyday activities such as driving. Some even feel a medication hangover the next day. Because benzodiazepines are metabolized slowly, the medication can build up in the body when used over longer periods of time. The result is over sedation. People who are over sedated may look like theyre drunk. Anxyolitic drugs can cause psychological and physical dependence, tolerance and addiction. Psychological approach to stress management and control Psychological approach to stress control and management are the techniques that try to control the cognitive, social, and emotional responses to stress. They do this by addressing the underlying cause of stress such as faulty thinking. This approach works by changing the persons perception of the stressor and increasing their perception control. One psychological approach to stress control and management is the cognitive-behavioral therapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy to controlling stress is based on the cognitive appraisal definition of stress and aims to change a persons perceptions and thoughts relating to, and dealing with stressful disorders. This therapy is appropriate for dealing with stress hence the assumption behind the cognitive approach is that, it is the way one thinks about the problem that is maladaptive. Thus, if an individual can be trained to reorganize their thinking and self-beliefs, the underlying problem itself may simply disappear. This approach to managing stress involves: stress inoculation training and hardiness training. Stress inoculation training Stress inoculation training (SIT): Unlike many cognitive therapies, stress inoculation training (SIT) is a more problem-focused coping strategy. It was developed by Donald Meichenbaum (1977, 1985) and the basic idea was to prepare individuals to cope with potential stressors. According to Meichenbaum (1985), the best way to cope with stressors is to go on the offensive and try to pre-empt them. People should try to anticipate sources of stress and have effective coping strategies ready to put in place. Meichenbaum (1985) describes SIT as: Analogous to the concept of medical inoculation against infectious diseasesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ It is designed to build psychological antibodies or coping skills, and to enhance resistance through exposure to stimuli that are strong enough to arouse defences without being so powerful as to overcome them. (Meichenbaum 1985) There are three main phases in stress inoculation training: 1. Assessment: with this training, the therapists discuss the nature of the problem with the individual, and solicit the individuals perception of how to eliminate it. Meichenbaum (1985) considers this relationship to be very important as it provides the glue that allows the various aspects of the therapy to work together. 2. Stress reduction techniques: the individual learns various techniques for reducing stress, such as relaxation and self instructional training, communication, assertion, problem solving, anger control, parenting, study skills and using social support by using coping self statements. 3. Application and follow through: In this final phase, the individual imagines using the stress reduction techniques learned in the second phase in difficult situations and engages in role play of such situations with the therapists, before using the techniques in a real life situations. Strengths of stress inoculation training One important strength of Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is that, it is very flexible. This is because, it consists of a wide variety of cognitive and behavioural techniques tailored to the individual needs of the client, which can be used to deal with many types of stressor (e.g., time-limited/persistent, controllable/uncontrollable, predictable/unpredictable, current/in the past). It has been found to be successful in helping people deal with the stress of chronic pain, performance anxiety, specific phobias and work related stress (Meichenbaum, 1977, 1985). This training has also helped athletes deal with the stress of competition (Mace, Eastmen Carroll, 1986) and helping patients prepare for surgery (Langer, Janis Wolfer, 1975). Weakness of stress inoculation training Stress inoculation training is however of less value when treating individuals who are highly stressed or exposed to very stressful situations. Most individuals differ in how easy they find it to use coping self statements in stressful situations. Hardiness training Over these years, much research into stress has shown that there are significant individual differences in the way that people respond to stress. Since some individuals seem to cope better than others do, it makes sense to try to isolate the reasons why they can do so. The hope is that more effective ways of coping can be passed on to help those who are not as well prepared. Suzanne Kobasa (1986) has identified such individuals, who she describes as hardy, as those whose cognitive strategies are better suited to dealing with stress. For example, they are more able to identify the symptoms of stress hence avoiding action can be taken in time. They make more realistic assessments of stressors, including being aware of the positive aspects of stressful situations, opportunities and new challenges. Kobasa suggests that hardiness can be improved with appropriate training. Her programme consists of three techniques: 1. Focusing: This explains that one should focus on the physical signs of stress and beware when further attention is needed. 2. Reconstructing stress situations: This technique the individual to think about recent stressful situations and note how it might have turned out both better and worse, hence becoming aware that things could have been worse enables you to feel more positive. 3. Compensation through self-improvement: If an individual is affected by a stressor that cannot be changed or avoided, then it may be helpful to take on another challenge that can be mastered. Consequently, this assures you that you can hope. Strengths of hardiness training There is little direct research evidence on the effectiveness of hardiness training and what research there is, however, Fischman taught a small number of executives these strategies and they had greater job satisfaction, fewer headaches, and better sleep patterns Weaknesses of hardiness training Reports were made that people who have followed this kind of programme do score higher on a test of hardiness, report feeling less stressed, and have lower blood pressure than before, Sarafino (1990). The study was done on a small scale and there was no follow-up, so results may have been due to increased attention and communication only Summary Both Meichenbaum (1985) and Kobasas(1986) approaches to stress management place great emphasis on the individual gaining control of a stressful situation because it is more often the sensation of being out of control that takes a situation beyond a persons ability to cope.